Importance of Community Development in the Middle East Important to the U.S. Essay Example for Free

Importance of Community Development in the Middle East Important to the U.S. Essay The Middle East is the region which extends from southwestern Asia to northeastern Africa, though its boundaries are not very specific. It is the historic origin of some major religions that we have today. These include Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Yezidi, Bahai faith among others. The Middle East came to be recognized as a single region after the First World War, during which the Ottoman Empire was divided into countries that currently comprise the Middle East. In 1948, Israel was established and joined the group of countries that make up the Middle East. The countries that are in the Middle East include Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Yemen, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates among others (Eur, 2002). The Middle East is however a region that has always been a centre of world affairs both on a positive and a negative note. There have been various ups and downs in the history of the Middle East; some of which recur to date. Some of these events have brought about an international outcry and eventually caused the calling forth of immediate reforms in some of the countries that comprise the Middle East. Some of the reforms brought to the attention of these countries are issues pertaining community development, which is vital for the growth of these countries. Community development in this region is aimed at mitigating the wrangles and wars that have been there in this region and make its occupants concentrate on issues that would be beneficial to their lives. Community development is the enhancement or the nurturing of some specific values within the society that bring about some positive change in the way that people in this particular society live and co-ordinate their lives. Community development is very important in any community because any improvement within any given society and mainly comes about as a result of cooperation between the members of these societies. It is through community development that acquirement, exploitation, and equal distribution of resources is accomplished. It is what enables a society to go forward and have all the amenities that are necessary for life (Bayat, 2002). The international community has been on the forefront advocating for community development in the region. This would see to it that the region develops economically and that its ties with other nations improve. The countries located in the Middle East dominate the world’s list of major oil producers. Most of the economies of these countries are highly driven by oil. The world’s economy is to some extent controlled by the prices of oil and this means that the Middle East bears a hand in whichever way that the oil prices sway. A reduction in oil production or an increment in the prices of oil per barrel would be a major blow to the economies of the world especially those of countries that do not produce oil or do not produce oil that can support their enormous populations. As a result of this, many of the world’s powers have always tried to have an edge over the countries in the Middle East in order to curb this (Wright, 1999). The United States of America is one of the countries that has always wanted there to be some stability and community development in the Middle East though most of these nations are opposed to its views. Many are even reluctant to cooperate because the United States is not mainly an Islamic state. The Middle East has always been marred by some wars and other cold wars. The United States itself was behind the 2003 Iraq invasion that saw to the total overhaul of the Iraqi government. Many local and international communities have always pointed fingers at the United States for such a miscalculation and therefore rapid community development in this region would help quench the guilt that the United States feels for doing this. Little else can be done other than trigger community development that would see Iraq have its economic prosperity back. This way, the United States can restore its sanctity too. The United States of America’s administration has therefore embarked on a plan to bring forth community development in Iraq. This is done through the providence of funds to kick off this process. Terrorism has been one of the menaces that have posed one of the greatest risks to the United States of America and its citizens. The United States government has been doing all within its means in order to eradicate terrorism and bring to book those involved. Terrorism has long been perceived as being endorsed and triggered by some Islamic extremists believed to be trained in some secret places within the Middle East. Therefore, if the United States figures that if it is able to bring forth some community development in the Middle East, they can be able to control or eventually eradicate terrorism. Some of the most wanted terrorists are believed to be harbored in the Middle East and some are even believed to be under the protection of some Middle East governments. The United States has even offered to train the Afghanistan police and military in order to control the levels of terrorism and fight drug cartels. Afghanistan is believed to be one of the world’s top producers of cocaine. The advent of nuclear weapons poses a major threat to the world’s population if these weapons are not handled with care. Countries ought to obtain approval from the United Nations before they embark on developing nuclear weapons and war-heads or any similar venture, failure to which some severe measures can be taken. Iran has some nuclear power stations which are operational though the United States and other powerful countries believe that Iran is developing nuclear weapons. The United States has taken a firm stand against this and has sought some diplomatic positions with regard to this issue. Significant community development across the Middle East would see to it that such problems are dealt with easily which would actually be an advantage to the United States on its take on global peace. The Israeli-Palestinian war has been raging for several decades. Israel is located amidst countries which are its sworn enemies. Many of the contentious issues between Israel and its neighbors have eventually resulted in wars that have left many dead and injured. The United States is Israel’s sworn ally and therefore a blow to Israel means a major blow to the United States though indirectly. As a result of this, the United States has always acted in the favor of Israel. The idea of community development would eventually lead to unity in the region and thus remove the burden of sporadic wars from Israel and promote economic growth in the region. There are various leftist terrorist groups that have been formed in opposition of Israel. These include Hamas and Hezbollah and the return of peace to the region would see to it that these groups cease to exist as they are a threat to peace in the region. This would further improve the United States’ war against terrorism (Thomas, 1998). Finally, the United States of America envisions economic allies from the Middle East, which hosts some of the fastest growing economies in the world. An alliance between the United States and the Middle East would see to the growth of the economic interests of both parties. Economic enhancement means more power and this is exactly this would translate to the United States. Economic empowerment is of paramount importance especially in this period when the world is experiencing a financial recession. Economic empowerment would therefore be a major boost to the United States and any other interested parties. The Middle East is one of the regions that the business interests of Americans are not appreciated and therefore mending this would change the equation. Countries such as the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Jordan have incorporated tourism into their economies and this is bound to improve their relationship with other countries. Egypt has been one of the key factors that have made peace-brokerage possible in the Middle East. Egypt is an Islamic state that is not hard lined towards general hatred towards the west. This gives it an edge towards dealing with the Middle East crises and dangerous wars. It is through Egypt that some international communities have voiced their concerns. It is through Egypt that some wars have been stopped through cease-fires; such as the recent Israeli-Palestinian war that was showcased along the Gaza strip. Egypt itself is strategically placed and is allied to many of the nations in the Middle East. They are therefore bound to listen to Egypt when it comes to negotiating a particular situation. As a result of this, many of the western countries ally themselves to Egypt in a bid to broker peace in the Middle East. Egypt therefore plays a very vital role when it comes to dealing with the nations of the Middle East because of its neutrality and similarity to these nations despite being an Islamic state. It is a peaceful sovereign state that is deemed reliable by many western countries when it comes to dealing with the Middle East. As a result, community development is vital as a solution to the problems that currently affect the Middle East nations. The Middle East is in a quagmire of woes at the moment and a solution that would bring about peace and stability in the region would all the same transform this region into an economic powerhouse which would be a big boost to the global financial market altogether. Community development, to say the least, is one of the keys to peace and stability in this region. References: Bayat, A. , (2002), Activism And Social Development In The Middle East, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Issue 34:1:1-28, Cambridge University Press, Retrieved on 29th April 30, 2009 from: http://journals. cambridge. org/action/displayAbstract? fromPage=onlineaid=105825 Eur, (2002), The Middle East and North Africa 2003, Europa Publications Staff, ISBN 1857431324, 9781857431322, Published by Routledge, Wright J. W. , (1999), The Political Economy of Middle East Peace: The Impact of Competing Trade Agendas, ISBN 0415183952, 9780415183956, Published by Routledge Thomas R. M. , (1998), Conducting educational research: a comparative view, ISBN 0897896092, 9780897896092, Published by Greenwood Publishing Group

Impact of Government Curriculum on Teaching and Learning

Impact of Government Curriculum on Teaching and Learning Governmental Control Over Curriculum and the Impact on Teachers as Skilled  Professionals Introduction Caldwell and Hayward (1998) state that the need for reform in England’s school system was realized in 1976 (p. 1). Yet, it was not until 1988 with the Education Reform Act instituted under Margaret Thatcher that a â€Å"national curriculum, national tests† and control of the schools by the government began to become a reality (Caldwell Hayward 1998, p. 1). Murnane and Steele (2007) contend that national involvement in the public schools was intended to support the learners, as well as the teachers (p. 15). However, because of the continued awareness by governments that Western educational institutions were lagging behind the accomplishments of Eastern schools, continued changes in the area of education and government’s control over it have completely altered the educational landscape (Murnane Steele 2007, p. 15). This is because of an adopted neo-liberalist policy approach that has favored markets over learners and policies over teacher effectiveness (Apple 200 1, p. 182). As a result teachers are becoming â€Å"deskilled† and incapable of maintaining their own control over their effectiveness in the classroom (Hall 2004, p. 3). As this control subsides, therefore, teachers are leaving the profession due to frustration and an inability to maintain their professional capabilities in the schools. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children. Neo-Liberalism Apple (2001) indicates that there was once a â€Å"classical liberalism† that existed in relation to the schools and those policies related to education that impacted teachers and students (p. 182). However, Apple (2001) states that as time has progressed the classical liberalism of the state policies has been altered toward a â€Å"neo-liberalism approach† (p. 182). According to Apple (2001), it is important to understand the differences between these two types of views of education because these differences are at the core of the educational issues that schools in many countries face today (p. 182). Olssen (1996) defines classical liberalism in the schools as a method of â€Å"freeing those within the schools from state control† (p. 337). Olssen (1996), on the other hand, specifies that neo-liberalism supports the state’s role in controlling education by â€Å"creating a market†¦[that involves] the conditions, laws and institutions necessary for its operation† (p. 337). Apple (2001) argues that when an education â€Å"market† is, therefore, created it is a market that seems to suggest â€Å"individualization† (p. 182). However, the individualization of the market is subjected to the controls of the government and the policies that force parents, teachers and students to act in a certain manner, leading to the end results that the state intended from the start (Apple 2001, p. 182). This is because the actions of the entities connected to education are restrained by the boundaries set forth in the policies of the government and as those boun daries become more tightly fixed the actions of the parties are more predictable. Choice and Influence on Teachers Apple (2001) expands on this notion by examining the middle class in society (p. 182). Apple (2001) stipulates that when parents of different nations in the middle class are given the opportunity of school choice the government knows that those parents will naturally begin placing their own criteria and/or expectations on schools (p. 182). Consequently when parents are unhappy with the curriculum at one school the teachers at the school are forced to alter that curriculum in order to meet the demands of the parents or they will loose the students within that school (Apple 2001, p. 182). The loss of students within a school means the loss of government funding, the loss of jobs, the lack of teacher’s ability to provide resources and ultimately the loss of the school itself in the community. Therefore, as Apple (2001) indicates, the government policies may be suggesting that people have a greater choice; yet, what is actually occurring is a more significant control of schools th rough the ability of parents to actively use choice to influence curriculum in relation to the schools (p. 182). As parents influence how the curriculum is created, consequently, teachers are placed under greater scrutiny and are forced to expand their offerings in the classroom – even if these offerings include learning that the teacher is not knowledgeable or skilled in. Brooker (2003) contends that the manner in which parents and private entities are capable of influencing the education of students is evident in the United Kingdom with the inclusion of computer technologies in the elementary classroom (p. 261). Over the past decade there has been such a significant increase in the demand for computer technology training of young students. Yet, those schools that do not conform to this expectation are loosing students (Brooker 2003, p. 261). In general this is because parents, manufacturers and the government insists that if children are not trained in the use of computers at an early age they will not be capable of competing with their peers or those in the outside world later on (Brooker 2003, p. 261). Yet, Brooker (2003) argues that technologies in the classroom has impacted teachers negatively due to the fact that many of today’s teachers are not skilled in the use of computers and they are not capable of acquiring the knowledge needed to instruct their students adequately (p. 261). This is because, in general, many schools fail to provide teachers with new training that will support the increase in the instructional scope and teachers do not have the ability to seek outside skill training and maintain their work schedule at the same time. New Teacher Training The concept of choice and control offered by the government is also being reflected in proposals by government entities associated with initial teacher training (Apple 2000, p. 1). Apple (2000) specifies that in the current educational climate what is being considered is the â€Å"deregulation† of teacher training as a means of promoting competition among institutions of higher learning (p. 1). Essentially what this causes to occur is that colleges and universities are freely allowed to choose their own approaches to teaching and teachers have the choice of training institutions that they prefer. However, as time progresses it becomes apparent to schools and the communities that support them which teachers are trained effectively and which are not (Apple 2001, p. 182). This occurs when standardized test scores are revealed from students, reflecting directly back on the teacher’s abilities to educate (Apple 2001, p. 182). As a result, when enough teachers from a particul ar institution are incapable of developing learners that can pass standardized tests that institution begins to realize a decline in enrollment (Apple 2001, p. 182). Although teachers in training are given the choice of schools to attend and colleges are given freedom in determining how those teachers are training, ultimately it is the governmental control of policies that impacts whether or not the institution of higher learning will survive and what curriculum will be used to teach teachers in society. In the neo-liberalist approach to education there is evidence that the freedoms that are being given to colleges and universities are instead tools that negatively impact teachers entering the profession, often with the new teachers being unaware that they are ultimately slated for failure before they even begin their careers. Able Students Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz (1994) stipulate that governmental control over education further impacts teachers and curriculum due to the fact that teachers and schools begin to attempt to avoid students with special needs and â€Å"seek out able children† (p. 19). This is because special needs students require a greater amount of teacher time, teacher expertise and teacher interaction with students that takes away from the teacher instructing â€Å"able† students who do not have special needs (Ball, Bowe Gewitz 1994, p. 19). In England, Ball, Bowe and Gewitz (1994) state that this intent to encourage able students enrolling in schools by teachers and administrators is directly related to the â€Å"publication of performance indicators such as examination league tables† because schools find it difficult to explain that test scores may be low due to an abundance of special needs students (Ball, Bowe Gewitz 1994, p. 19). Yet, Gerwitz, Ball and Bowe (1995) further argue that control of the curriculum and teacher performance is also related to the students of different cultures (p. 6). For example, in England it is known that African American students traditionally have difficulties in the schools because of the large segment of this population that is impoverished (p. 6). Poverty is correlated to the abilities of the students, with those in the impoverished classes historically performing less successfully on standardized tests (Gerwitz, Ball Bowe 1995, p. 6). Apple (2001), therefore, states that this causes teachers to develop curriculum that targets students who are more capable of learning and ignores those students that standardized testing was intended to support in the first place (p. 182). Fragmentation Allen and Ainley (2007) contend that as time progresses the governmental control over the curriculum in the schools is continuing to expand, impacting how teachers not only teach, but changing what is taught to students, causing a fragmentation of teacher control over their own labor (p. 1). An example of this exists within English schools as education reform is focused on vocational education for students beginning at age 14 (Allen Ainley 2007, p. 1). According to Allen and Ainley (2007) the government came to the conclusion that there was a decline in students graduating from schools with marketable skills and this impacted their success after public schooling (p. 1). The issue, therefore, became less concentrated on a student’s ability to read, write and perform simple math and more on specifically training students to function in specific jobs once they have left academia (Allen Ainley, 2007, p. 1). Allen and Ainley (2007) indicate that this brings about two specific issues. First, while teachers in the United Kingdom have indicated that they do not support this policy, teacher organizations throughout the country have ignored teacher protests and called on educators to ensure that the policies are successful (Allen Ainley 2007, p 1). Second, programs for vocational training are being largely created in schools that instruct low income or impoverished students, with those students in high performing schools working with a traditional curriculum (Allen Ainley 2007, p. 1). What this means is that while governmental policies are once again suggesting that there is choice in relation to education, the policies are ensuring that only those choices that support what the government deems appropriate for education will be made (Allen Ainley 2007, p. 1; Chitty 2004, p. 160). Furthermore, Murnane and Steele (2007) state that this causes teachers to be inundated with having to cope with a curriculum that is ever-changing and that they believe they no longer have control over (p. 15). As a result teachers are leaving the teaching profession in vast numbers and this is creating a greater shortage in the teacher workforce than ever before (Murnane Steele 2007, p. 15). Conclusion Duggan and Pole (1996) suggest that the dissatisfaction in the teacher workforce began to be ever apparent in the 1990s (p. 139). Hall (2004) states that this is an issue that has increased over time because of policies such as â€Å"the Literacy and Numeracy Strategies in primary school and the Key Stage 3 Strategy in secondary schools†, as well as the inclusion of technologies and standardized testing that â€Å"constricts teachers† and their capabilities throughout the curriculum (p. 3). According to Hall (2004) the types of control connected to the schools and the deskilling of teachers are endless (p. 8; Appendix 1). Consequently there is an increased teacher workload, decreased teacher satisfaction and a reduction in the number of teachers that want to or are capable of instructing students in the manner in which government and/or society demands. For the future of education in the Western world this could mean that the attempt by government to regulate education and create more successful outcomes for students in England has the opposite effect, as is indicated by Hall (2004, p. 3). The research indicates that the original intent of education to create students that were capable of being productive citizens after their educational careers ended became extremely complex when it was realized that Western students did not achieve at the same rate as Eastern students. Therefore, a neo-liberalist policy toward education by the government was adopted, suggesting that choice was available to parents, teachers and students and that a greater freedom in education would exist. Yet, the research also demonstrates that the idea of choice was restricted by the policies related to education that were adopted by the government and that these policies minimalized the choices that actually existed. Moreover, these neo-liberalist policies became so intricately woven within education that the choices made by those connected to education could be predicted and manipulated with ease. For teachers this has meant that they are overworked, under-trained and unprepared for the demands o f the modern educational system and given few options as to how they can overcome these issues. This knowledge provides serious implications for the educational system because as teachers continue to become frustrated due to their increasing deskilled status they are leaving the teaching workforce. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children. Appendix 1 (Hall 2004, p. 8). 1. Regulated market control: metaphors of the market and consumer demand are imposed upon schools; success and profits go to those who best meet consumer demand. Teachers’ work is evaluated in terms of measured outputs set against cost. Competition is the key element in relations between schools. (Ball, 1994) 2. Technical control: this is embodied in structures rather than people – in, for example, notionally ‘teacher proof’ teaching materials and text books, and in specified competences (Apple, 1988, 1996) 3. Bureaucratic control: hierarchical power is embedded in the social and organisational structure of institutions – jobs are differently divided and defined, have different salaries, and supervision, evaluation and promotion arrangements. The potential for establishing a career operates as a control mechanism. 4. Corporate control: the focus of the institution is on economic rather than social good. A competitive ethos prevails. Managers focus on economic goals. The head teacher is perceived more as a line manager than as a first among professional equals. 5. Ideological control: hegemonic beliefs – for example, that a good teacher has certain characteristics – become part of the dominant ideology within schools. These ideas and beliefs are reinforced in pre-service and in-service training. Certain conceptions of teachers’ work become naturalised – for example, a move away from child-centred discourse to market based discourse. 6. Disciplinary power: Foucault (1977) shows how, by means of the technologies of power – hierarchical observation, normalising judgment and examination –individuals are ‘disciplined’ into ways of understanding their work. Minor procedures and routines are specified (times, dress, expected responses) in ways that become anonymous and functional within a school; teachers and others within the school regulate their own behaviours to meet these expectations. Smyth describes this as a ‘triumph of technique over questions of purpose’ Bibliography Allen, M. and Ainley, P. (2007) Education make you fick, innit? London: Tufnell Press. Apple, M. (2000). Power, meaning, and identity. New York: Peter Lang. Apple, M. (2001). Markets, standards, teaching and teacher education. Journal of  Teacher Education. 52(3): 182-207. Ball, S., Bowe, R., Gewirtz, S. (1994). Market forces and parental choice. In S. Tomlinson (Ed.), Educational reform and its consequences (pp. 13-25). London: IPPR/Rivers Oram Press. Brooker, L. (2003). Integrating new technologies in the UK classroom. Childhood  Education. 79(5): 261-289. Caldwell, B., and Hayward, D. (1998). The future of schools: Lessons from the reform  of public education. London: Falmer Press. Chitty, C. (2004). Education policy in Britain. London: Palgrave. Duggan, R., and Pole, C. (1996). Reshaping education in the 1990s. New York:  Routledge. Gewirtz, S., Ball, S., Bowe, R. (1995). Markets, choice, and equity in education.  Philadelphia: Open University Press. Hall. C. (2004). Theorizing changes in teacher’s work. Canadian Journal of Education  Administration and Policy. Retrieved January 1, 2009, from http://www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/pdf_files/hall.pdf Murnane, R., and Steele, J. (2007). What is the problem? The challenge of providing  effective teacher for all children. The Future of Children. 17(1): 15-35. Olssen, M. (1996). In defense of the welfare state and of publicly provided education.  Journal of Education Policy. 11: 337-362.

The Scope Of Carbon Trading In India Environmental Sciences Essay

The Scope Of Carbon Trading In India Environmental Sciences Essay Carbon Trading: Carbon trading is a practice which is designed to reduce overall emissions of carbon dioxide, along with other greenhouse gases, by providing a regulatory and economic incentive. In fact, the term carbon trading is a bit misleading, as a number of greenhouse emissions can be regulated under what are known as cap and trade systems. For this reason, some people prefer the term emission trading, to emphasize the fact that far more than just carbon is being traded. This practice is part of a system which is colloquially referred to as a cap and trade. Under a cap and trade system, a government sets a national goal for total greenhouse gas emissions over a set period of time, such as a quarter or a year, and then allocates credits to companies which allow them to emit a certain amount of greenhouse gases. If a company is unable to use all of its credits, it can sell or trade those credits with a company which is afraid of exceeding its allowance. Carbon trading provides a very obvious incentive for companies to improve their efficiency and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, by turning such reductions into a physical cash benefit. In addition, it is a disincentive for being inefficient, as companies are effectively penalized for failing to meet emissions goals. In this way, regulation is accomplished largely through economic means, rather than through draconian government measures, encouraging people to engage in carbon trading because its potentially profitable. As a general rule, carbon trading is paired with an overall attempt to reduce carbon emissions in a country over an extended period of time, which means that each year, the number of available credits will be reduced. By encouraging companies to become more efficient ahead of time, a government can often more easily meet emissions reduction goals, as companies will not be expected to change practices overnight, and the carbon trading system creates far more flexibility than setting blanket baseline levels. In some countries, carbon exchanges have opened up, operating much like stock exchanges. These organizations facilitate the exchange of carbon credits, ensuring that they flow smoothly through the market, and they provide standard set prices for credits, based on market demand and general economic health. In some cases, individual citizens can also participate in carbon trading, purchasing credits to offset their own greenhouse gas emissions, and some advocates have suggested that carbon trading should be formally expanded to all citizens, encouraging global and individual involvement in reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Scope of Carbon Trading in India: Indian Market of Carbon Trading: The carbon market is divided into two parts-that which is compliance driven and the other being the voluntary market. The more dominant and lucrative compliance market only accepts carbon credits under the CDM programme, while there are various regional non UN administered voluntary programs worldwide. For carbon credit trading, India follows a scheme called Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or more commonly, carbon trading. CDM is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialized countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment to invest in emission reducing projects in developing countries as an alternative to what is generally considered more costly emission reductions in their own countries. Under CDM, a developed country can take up a greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction project activity in a developing country where the cost of GHG reduction project activities is usually much lower. The developed country would be given carbon credits for meeting its emission reduction targets, while the developing country would receive the capital and clean technology to implement the project. Carbon credits are certificates issued to countries that reduce their emission of GHG, which causes global warming. Developed countries that have exceeded the levels can either cut down emis sions, or borrow or buy carbon credits from developing countries. The Indian market is extremely receptive to CDM. Having cornered more than half of the global total in tradable certified emission reduction (CERs), Indias dominance in carbon trading under the CDM of the UN Convention on climate change is beginning to influence business dynamics in the country. Carbon credits are measured in units of CERs, which is equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide reduction. Future scope: Indias huge potential for generation and sale of CERs needs to be harnessed especially to tap the huge opportunity in the European Union Emission Trading System (EU-ETS). Hence, in order to bring vibrancy to the emission market in the country, there is a need for a transparent platform that will help buyers and sellers get a fair deal and reduce the margins of the intermediaries to reflect the economic value-addition. With technology at Indias side, it is time the country leveraged it for a sustained growth of the carbon credit market. Indian industries, which looked at CDM implementation in their process have failed to realize fair prices in most cases due to the currently thriving OTC (over-the-counter) markets that have fleeced most sellers by buying at prices much lower than that provided by buyers. The MCX-CCX (Chicago Climate Exchange) tie-up is expected to ensure better price discovery of carbon credits besides helping the participants cover the risks associated with selling and buying of carbon credits. Further, the exchange, with its various ways of educating the eco-system participants, would enhance the benefits accruing to them in its endeavor to make India a major global commodity-trading hub. Objectives: The objectives for study are as follows: To know what is carbon trading and its impact on atmosphere. To know world market of Carbon trading. To know about the Carbon trading market in India To know future growth and scope in India in carbon trading. Review of Literature: According to Shilpa Shanbhag,[Dataquest the business of InfoTech] India needs to put a price on carbon, since true leaders do not wait for international climate mandates. There is nothing stopping India from setting up a domestic environmental exchange based on the guidelines of the international carbon market and converting air and water pollutants such as CO2, SO2, NOx and BoD into tradable instruments. NOx and SOx trading schemes in the US have shown that it is possible to reduce emissions and acid rain under an environmental trading scheme. Later she add instead of switching off light bulbs for an hour each year or holding concerts to raise climate change awareness, it would be much sensible to invest in a wind mill, which produces clean power. This mill would offer two-fold benefits of supplying power to the state grid for the next 25 years and it would also earn carbon credits. A 2007 study by the Financial Times discovered the following:   * Widespread instances of people and organizations buying worthless credits that do not yield any reductions in carbon emissions. * Industrial companies profiting from doing very littleor from gaining carbon credits on the basis of efficiency gains from which they have already benefited substantially. * Brokers providing services of questionable or no value. * A shortage of verification, making it difficult for buyers to assess the true value of carbon credits (Industry Caught in Carbon Smokescreen, Financial Times, April 25, 2007) Accordind to Ecosecuriites ,The highest price projection found in the survey resulted from the ACCF/NAM model, estimating that a carbon price of $257 would be needed by 2025 to accomplish the emissions reduction objective in its High Cost scenario. This models High Cost scenario assumed that only 14% of GHG emissions could be offset, while the remaining emissions had to be internally mitigated. This scenario also strictly limited the rate at which technologies are developed and implemented, including a constraint on nuclear by allowing only 10-25 GW of additional capacity by 2030.The lower price projections profiled in this report resulted from the PACE model, estimating that a carbon price of only $0.41 would be needed by 2025 to accomplish the emissions reduction objective in its Multigas scenario, and the MERGE and MiniCAM models, estimating a required carbon price of only $0.30 in 2020 for the 6.7 W/m2 scenario. The PACE model gave low values partially as a result of assuming a r elatively low GHG emissions baseline and emissions growth over time. Analysis: The Carbon trading is one of the fastest growing financial markets in the world. It is the most visible result of early regulatory efforts to mitigate climate change, and grew out of the Kyoto Protocol, which was adopted in 1997. The protocol requires that by 2012, developed countries will achieve greenhouse gas emission reductions of at least 5% against baseline levels of 1990. To help countries achieve that goal it established the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which promotes sustainable development in developing countries while spurring cost-effective reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in the more polluting developed countries. India offers a large potential for CDM because of its inherent dependence on fossil fuels for development. So countries with relatively low abatement and transaction costs like India are a major attraction for CDM projects. The market is emerging strongly despite various global factors, according to the World Bank. Regulation that caps greenhouse gas emissions has spawned an emerging carbon trade that was valued at US $64 billion (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬47 billion) in 2007. For the third consecutive year, China was the world leader in CDM supply with a 73% market share in terms of 2007 transacted volume. Brazil and India, at 6% market share each, transacted the highest volumes after China. Africa followed with 5% of the market. India is the fourth largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world in absolute terms. But its per capita emission of 1.2 tons per person per year is much lower than the Wests figure of 20 tons, or than the global average of 8 tons. If India has to realize its ambitions of economic growth and take large sections of its population out of the low income trap, it must grow. That means greenhouse gas emission reductions will CLEAN DEVELPOMENT MECHANISM (CDM) AND CARBON TRADING IN INDIA CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM GLOBAL WARMING- THE ISSUE The Earth has an atmosphere of the proper depth and chemical composition. About 30% of incoming energy from the sun is reflected back to space while the rest reaches the earth, resulting in warming the air, oceans, and land, and maintaining an average surface temperature of about 15  °C. The chemical composition of the atmosphere is also responsible for nurturing life on our planet. Most of it is nitrogen (78%); about 21% is oxygen, which all animals need to survive; and only a small percentage (0.036%) is made up of carbon dioxide which plants require for photosynthesis. The atmosphere carries out the critical function of maintaining life-sustaining conditions on Earth, in the following way: each day, energy from the sun is absorbed by the land, seas, mountains, etc. If all this energy were to be absorbed completely, the earth would gradually become hotter and hotter. But actually, the earth both absorbs and, simultaneously releases it in the form of infra red waves (which cannot be seen by our eyes but can be felt as heat, for example the heat that you can feel with your hands over a heated car engine). All this rising heat is not lost to space, but is partly absorbed by some gases present in very small (or trace) quantities in the atmosphere, called greenhouse gases (GHGs). Greenhouse gases (for example, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour), re-emit some of this heat to the earths surface. If they did not perform this useful function, most of the heat energy would escape, leaving the earth cold (about -18  °C) and unfit to support life. However, ever since the Industrial Revolution began about 150 years ago, man-made activities have added significant quantities of GHGs to the atmosphere. The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) have grown by about 31%, 151% and 17%, respectively, between 1750 and 2000 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC 2001). As the GHGs are transparent to incoming solar radiation, but opaque to outgoing longwave radiation, an increase in the levels of GHGs could lead to greater warming, which, in turn, could have an impact on the worlds climate, leading to the phenomenon known as climate change. Indeed, scientists have observed that over the 20th century, the mean global surface temperature increased by 0.6 °C (IPCC 2001). They also observed that since 1860 (the year temperature began to be recorded systematically using a thermometer), the 1990s have been the warmest decade. Important greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas, but since humans do not generally have a direct affect on water vapor concentration in the atmosphere, it is not included in this paper. Because each greenhouse gas traps different amounts of heat and stays in the atmosphere for different lengths of time, studies use measures of global warming potential (GWP) to compare between gases. Carbon dioxide is used as the benchmark, so all other gases are measured in carbon dioxide equivalence (CO2e)2. Table 1: The global warming potential of six major greenhouse gases (This measure takes into account the heat trapping abilities and the time the gas stays in the atmosphere (IPCC 2001a, 2001b)) Gas Global Warming Potential Atmospheric Life (years) CO2 1 5 to 200 CH4 21 12 N2O 310 114 HFC 140 to 11,700 1.4 to 260 PFC 6,500 to 9,200 10,000 to 50,000+ SF6 23,900 3200 NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING Another IPCC publication states that there is a very high confidence that human activities have caused a net warming of the planet (IPCC 2007a). KYOTO PROTOCOL Presently, a variety of approaches are being implemented to reduce carbon emissions. These range from efforts by individuals and firms to reduce their climate footprints to initiatives at city, state, regional and global levels. Among these are the commitments of governments to reduce emissions through the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its 1997 Kyoto Protocol. In 1992 famous Rio earth summit, United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted with an objective to stabilize atmospheric concentration of GHG at levels that would prevent dangerous humane interference with climate system. The UNFCCC came into effect on 21st March, 1994 according to which industrialized countries shall have the main responsibility to mitigate climate change. Such countries are listed a s Annex- I countries. Under UNFCCC all the member countries were to report on their national GHG emissions inventories and propose climate change mitigation strategies. After two and half years of intense negotiation between Annex-I countries, an agreement was struck at the now famous Kyoto protocol on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. Born in the 1997 World Earth Summit held at Kyoto, Japan, this Protocol is making miracles in society today. The convention, participated by 160 countries of the world, was to negotiate binding limitations on greenhouse gases for the developed nations pursuant to the objective of the Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992. Under the Kyoto Protocol, emission caps were set for each Annex-I countries, amounting in total to an average reduction of 5.2% below the aggregate emission level in 1990. Each country has a predetermined target of emission reduction as compared to 1990 level. No emission cap is imposed on Non Annex I countries. However, to encourage the participation of Non-Annex I in emission reduction process a mechanism known as Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) has been provided. The carbon markets are a prominent part of the response to climate change and have an opportunity to demonstrate that they can be a credible and central tool for future climate mitigation. The outcome was the Kyoto Protocol, in which the developed nations agreed to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, relative to the levels emitted in 1990 or pay a price to those that do. At this point comes the carbon trading. CARBON CREDITS The primary purpose of the Protocol was to make developed countries pay for their ways with e missions while at the same time monetarily rewarding countries with good behaviour in this regard. Since developing countries can start with clean technologies, they will be rewarded by those stuck with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾dirtyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ ones. This system poises to become a big machine for partially transferring wealth from wealthy, industrialised countries to poor, undeveloped countries. A CER or carbon Credit is defined as the unit related to reduction of 1 tonne of CO2 emission from the baseline of the project activity. Let us say that India decided to invest in a new power station, and has decided on a particular technology at the cost of X crore. An entity from an industrialised country (which could even be a company) offers to provide India with slightly better technology, which costs more (say Y crore), but will result in lower emissions. The industrialised country will only pay the incremental cost of the project viz. Y minus X. In return, the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾investingà ¢Ã ¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ country will get certified emission reductionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ (CERs), or credits, which it can use to meet its Kyoto commitments. This is a very good deal indeed but for the investing country. Not only do they sell developing countries their technology, but they also meet their Kyoto commitments without lifting a finger to reduce their domestic emissions. Countries like the US can continue to pollute at home, so long as it makes the reductions elsewhere. The World Bank has built itself a role in this market as a referee, broker and macro-manager of international fund flows. The scheme has been entitled Clean Development Mechanism, or more commonly, Carbon Trading. CDM PROJECT TYPES Carbon Credits are sold to entities in Annex-I countries, like power utilities, who have emission reduction targets to achieve find it cheaper to buy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾offsettingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ certificate rather than do a clean-up in their backyard. Type of projects, which are being applied for CDM and which can be of valuable potential, are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Energy efficiency projects Increasing building efficiency (Concept of Green Building/LEED Rating), eg. Technopolis Building Kolkata Increasing commercial/industrial energy efficiency (Renovation Modernization of old power plants) Fuel switching from more carbon intensive fuels to less carbon intensive fuels; and Also includes re-powering, upgrading instrumentation, controls, and/or equipment à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Transport Improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency by the introduction of new technologies Changes in vehicles and/or fuel type, for example, switch to electric cars or fuel cell vehicles (CNG/Bio fuels) Switch of transport mode, e.g. changing to less carbon intensive means of transport like trains (Metro in Delhi); and Reducing the frequency of the transport activity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Methane recovery Animal waste methane recovery utilization à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Installing an anaerobic digester utilizing methane to produce energy Coal mine methane recovery à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Collection utilization of fugitive methane from coal mining; Capture of biogas à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Landfill methane recovery and utilization Capture utilization of fugitive gas from gas pipelines; Methane collection and utilization from sewage/industrial waste treatment facilities à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Industrial process changes Any industrial process change resulting in the reduction of any category greenhouse gas emissions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cogeneration Use of waste heat from electric generation, such as exhaust from gas turbines, for industrial purposes or heating (e.g. Distillery-Molasses/ bagasse) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Agricultural sector Energy efficiency improvements or switching to less carbon intensive energy sources for water pumps (irrigation) Methane reductions in rice cultivation Reducing animal waste or using produced animal waste for energy generation (see also under methane recovery) and Any other changes in an agricultural practices resulting in reduction of any category of greenhouse gas emissions INDIAN SCENARIO- FAVOURING POINTS India comes under the third category of signatories to UNFCCC. India signed and ratified the Protocol in August, 2002 and has emerged as a world leader in reduction of greenhouse gases by adopting Clean Development Mechanisms (CDMs) in the past few years. According to Report on National Action Plan for operationalising Clean Development Mechanism(CDM) by Planning Commission, Govt.of India, the total CO2-equivalent emissions in 1990 were 10, 01, 352 Gg (Gigagrams), which was approximately 3% of global emissions. If India can capture a 10% share of the global CDM market, annual CER revenues to the country could range from US$ 10 million to 300 million (assuming that CDM is used to meet 10-50% of the global demand for GHG emission reduction of roughly 1 billion tonnes CO2, and prices range from US$ 3.5-5.5 per tonne of CO2). As the deadline for meeting the Kyoto Protocol targets draws nearer, prices can be expected to rise, as countries/companies save carbon credits to meet strict targe ts in the future. India is well ahead in establishing a full-fledged system in operationalising CDM, through the Designated National Authority (DNA).Other than Industries and transportation,the major sources of GHGs emission in India are as follows : à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Paddy fields à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Enteric fermentation from cattle and buffaloes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Municipal Solid Waste Of the above three sources the emissions from the paddy fields can be reduced through special irrigation strategy and appropriate choice of cultivars; whereas enteric fermentation emission can also be reduced through proper feed management. In recent days the third source of emission i.e. Municipal Solid Waste Dumping Grounds are emerging as a potential CDM activity despite being provided least attention till date. Present status of dumping grounds in India: In India, due to increased population commercial development, cities are facing probles of SW (Municipal Solid Waste) disposal. The urban population in larger towns and cities in India is increasing at a decadal growth rate of above 40%. There are no Sanitary Landfill sites in India at present. Municipal Solid Waste is simply dumped without any treatment into land (depressions, ditches, soaked ponds) or on the outskirts of the city in an unscientific manner with no compliance of regulations. The existing dumping grounds in India are full and overflowing beyond capacity. It is difficult to get new dumping yards and if at all available, they are far away from the city and this adds to the exorbitant cost of transportation Various processes/technologies available to reduce the amount of Municipal Solid Waste are as follows. 1. Physical (a. Pelletisation) 2. Biochemical (a. Aerobic Composting b. Anaerobic Digestion) 3. Thermal (a. Incineration b. Gasification) Among the above options/technologies following are considered as favorable to implement in India. 1. Pelletisation, 2. Anaerobic digestion using bio-methanation technology for production of power, 3. Production of organic manure using controlled aerobic composting. a) India high potential of carbon credits b) India can capture 10% of Global CDM market c) Annual revenue estimated range from US$10 million to 330 million d) Wide spectrum of projects with different sizes e) Vast technical human resource f) Strong industrial base g) Dynamic, transparent speedy processing by Indian DNA (NCDMA) for host country approval h) MoU Signed between MoP and GTZ (Oct 2006)- Indo German Energy program (IGEN) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Baseline CO2 Emissions from Power Sector already in place- first CDM country à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Improvement in EE à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ CDM in Power Sector CDM POTENTIAL FOR INDIA POLICIES AND WAY AHEAD Greenhouse gas abatement policy design is exceedingly difficult because GHG emissions result from nearly all modern human activities. It involves every sector of the economy as well as habits and choices of individuals. Economics is more than just a study of business, it is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between aspirations and the scarce means to reach those goals. Individuals make decisions every day that influence the amount of greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere. If a stable climate is one objective among the many to which society aspires, then economics is a tool well-suited to understand how those decisions are made and how efficient and effective outcomes can be reached. Indian Forum India is a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the objective of the Convention is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interfe rence with the climate system. To strengthen the developed country commitments under the Convention, the Parties adopted Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which commits developed country Parties to return their emissions of greenhouse gases to an average of approximately 5.2% below 1990 levels over the period 2008-12. The Seventh Conference of Parties (COP-7) to the UNFCCC decided that Parties participating in CDM should designate a National Authority for the CDM and as per the CDM project cycle, a project proposal should include written approval of voluntary participation from the Designated National Authority of each country and confirmation that the project activity assists the host country in achieving sustainable development. Accordingly the Central Government constituted the National Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Authority for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of environment in terms of the Kyoto Protocol. The CDM Authority has the powers: (a) to invite officials a nd experts from Government, financial institutions, consultancy organizations, non-governmental organizations, civil society, legal profession, industry and commerce, as it may deem necessary for technical and professional inputs and may co-opt other members depending upon need. (b) to interact with concerned authorities, institutions, individual stakeholders for matters relating to CDM. (c) to take up any environmental issues pertaining to CDM or Sustainable Development projects as may be referred to it by the Central Government, and (d) to recommend guidelines to the Central Government for consideration of projects and principles to be followed for according host country approval. As discussed above, India has a vast opportunity to explore in terms of CDM and carbon-credits. Through its giant ongoing Infrastructure projects and projects on non-conventional energy sources, a new phase of development is still to be observed, moderate start of which has already begun. Conclusion There is a great opportunity awaiting India in carbon trading which is estimated to go up to $100 billion by 2010. In the new regime, the country could emerge as one of the largest beneficiaries accounting for 25 per cent of the total world carbon trade, says a recent World Bank report. The countries like US, Germany, Japan and China are likely to be the biggest buyers of carbon credits which are beneficial for India to a great extent. The Indian market is extremely receptive to Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Having cornered more than half of the global total in tradable certified emission reduction (CERs), Indias dominance in carbon trading under the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the UN Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is beginning to influence business dynamics in the country. India Inc pocketed Rs 1,500 crores in he year 2005 just by selling carbon credits to developed-country clients. Various projects would create up to 306 million tradable CERs. Analysts claim if more companies absorb clean technologies, total CERs with India could touch 500 million. Of the 391 projects sanctioned, the UNFCCC has registered 114 from India, the highest for any country. Indias average annual CERs stand at 12.6% or 11.5 million. Hence, MSW dumping grounds can be a huge prospect for CDM projects in India. These types of projects would not only be beneficial for the Government bodies and stakeholders but also for general public.

Critical Pedagogy :: Teaching Education Essays

Critical Pedagogy "Education must be understood as producing not only knowledge but also political subjects." This statement by Paulo Freire is very bold, and can be translated in many different ways. First, the word knowledge can be understood in many different ways. By definition, knowledge is defined as: the acquaintance with facts, truths, or principles. This knowledge according to Freire would be entirely based on a receptacle idea of education, and just "filling us up" with facts that our teachers know. In some countries this knowledge would mean only the information that the government or the rulers would like the citizens to know. In this sense, education is used to create subjects that are all exactly the same. It creates subjects that usually would not deviate from the normal pattern, and would definitely not rebel against the system. Knowledge can also be something that each person establishes individually by experience and by learning from teachers who do not teach in the banking method, b ut in a method to help students understand concepts, principles, and ideas. The idea of education creating political subjects is also up for argument. A subject can be defined as: a person who is under the domination of a sovereign or a state. This means someone who is forced to live their life according to a government, and obey certain laws. No one should have to be forced to live and think only in a way that is acceptable to a government or political power. Everyone is an individual, and can ultimately make decisions for him or herself. If one’s way of thought is dominated or ruled by anything or anyone, then the individual is the one who is allowing this to happen to himself. He does not want to be free. He does not want to be an individual. People who wish to be individuals will never allow their thoughts and minds to be dominated by a political power. They may be persecuted for their deviance from the accepted way of life, but they will never allow someone else to rule the way they think. This has been shown through many great historical figures. For example, Mahatma Gandhi was forced to be a political subject under the rule of political leaders, and was persecuted because of his thoughts and actions. Throughout his hardships he persevered, and did not let anyone control his thoughts and his mind.

Glacial Processes :: essays research papers

There are many different glacial landforms created by glacial erosion, one of these landforms is U-shaped valleys or glacial troughs. This glacial landform has many distinct characteristics. One of these characteristics is that it has very steep valley sides caused by the glacier as it moves down the valley eroding the sides of the valley by the processes of abrasion and plucking. Abrasion is when the boulders and moraine carried by the glacier rubs and erodes the valley side as it physically moves down the valley. Plucking happens when the water in the glacier freezes inside of the cracks in the individual rocks on the valley side then the water freezes and as the glacier moves the rock is plucked or torn from the valley side producing the steep side to the valley. The valley also has wide flat floors caused by ice movement aided by large volumes of melt water and moraine has greater erosive power than that of rivers. This results in the wide floors. The greater erosive power of the glacier than that of a river also causes the valley to be very straight compared to the valley shape that a river has eroded, it has no interlocking spurs because the shear power of the glacier has slowly smashed through the original spurs of the valley. Just before the glacier forms and when the temperatures are cold enough known as the the â€Å"pre glacial† period the process of freeze thaw takes place, this aids the formation of the u shaped valley. Freeze thaw is when the water in the summer enters the cracks of rocks and the in winter when the temperatures have gone below 0 degrees centigrade the water freezes in the cracks and because when water has frozen the particles in the water have less movement and expand causing the rock to shatter. Freeze thaw therefore helps in the formation of the u shaped valley by breaking up the valley floor so that the floor is weakened so the glacier can easily and speedily erode the valley floor by all the conventional forms of erosion like plucking abrasion but with greater ease. There are many of examples of u shaped valleys around the world because wherever there has been a glacier there will be a u shaped valley that has been formed as it moves down the valley. One example of a u shaped valley is that of the valley in the Swiss Alps near san moritz

Definitions on the Internet of Things Essay

Here is a list of existing definitions for the Internet of Things:- * â€Å"Things having identities and virtual personalities operating in smart spaces using intelligent interfaces to connect and communicate within social, environmental, and user contexts† or â€Å"Interconnected objects having an active role in what might be called the Future Internet† or semantically â€Å"Internet of Things means a world-wide network of interconnected objects uniquely addressable, based on standard communication protocols† ETP EPOSS 05/2008 * â€Å"A global network infrastructure, linking physical and virtual objects through the exploitation of data capture and communication capabilities. This infrastructure includes existing and evolving Internet and network developments. It will offer specific object-identification, sensor and connection capability as the basis for the development of independent cooperative services and applications. These will be characterized by a high degree of autonomous data capture, event transfer, network connectivity and interoperability.† Casagras 02/2009 * â€Å"A world where physical objects are seamlessly integrated into the information network and where the physical objects can become active participants in business processes. Services are available to interact with these ‘smart objects’ over the Internet, query and change their state and any information associated with them, taking into account security and privacy issues.† Stephan Haller, SAP 05/2009 * â€Å"Internet of Things (IoT) is an integrated part of Future Internet and could be defined as a dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual ‘things’ have identities, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into the information network. In the IoT, ‘things’ are expected to become active participants in business, information and social processes where they are enabled to interact and communicate among themselves and with the environment by exchanging data and information ‘sensed’ about the environment, while reacting autonomously to the ‘real/physical world’ events and influencing it by running processes that trigger actions and create services with or without direct human intervention. Interfaces in the form of services facilitate interactions wit h these ‘smart things’ over the Internet, query and change their state and any information associated with them, taking into account security and privacy issues.† CERP-IoT 09/2009 * â€Å"The future Internet of Things links uniquely identifiable things to their virtual representations in the Internet containing or linking to additional information on their identity, status, location or any other business, social or privately relevant information at a financial or non-financial pay-off that exceeds the efforts of information provisioning and offers information access to non-predefined participants. The provided accurate and appropriate information may be accessed in the right quantity and condition, at the right time and place at the right price. The Internet of Things is not synonymous with ubiquitous / pervasive computing, the Internet Protocol (IP), communication technology, embedded devices, its applications, the Internet of People or the Intranet / Extranet of Things, yet it combines aspects and technologies of all of these approaches.†

Freud’s Psychoanalysis in Art: Frida Kahlo’s Surrealism

One of the most influential social scientists of his time, Sigmund Freud and his theories on psychoanalysis remains relevant today in the study of human personality and the influence of the subconscious on human thinking and behavior.Freud’s ideas on the significance of dreams, which was seen by him as the expression of human being’s innermost desire, were in fact borrowed by artists ascribing to surrealism who sought to imprint the subconscious. Surrealist paintings are thus characterized with the use of symbols and often have a dreamlike quality to them, where cannot always be taken at face value or by literal translation.It is no wonder then that Freud’s ideas have been widely used in the interpretation of works of art or even of character sketches. Freud’s theory on how personalities are developed which revolves around the main ideas of id, ego, and superego, have, for instance, been used to explain how sex and libido may be transformed into other form s of energies, or how particularly traumatic life events may have a negative effect on both adults and children when not properly processed.Likewise, Freud’s ideas of sexual repression and displacement were influential in the growth and development of the surrealist school, which drew on the rich imagery of one’s dreams, wishes, and fantasies to create their art. (West 185)One of the most notable surrealist painters, Frida Kahlo, has been a classic example of an artist whose works could be interpreted using Freudian concepts and ideas. Kahlo’s tumultuous life, characterized by wild sexual affairs with both male and female lovers, a devastating divorce, and her inability to conceive children due to a series of back operations were mostly found in the bulk of her work which were fraught with symbolisms. (West 185)In her painting entitled Self Portrait with a Necklace, Kahlo painted herself wearing a necklace of thorns and a dangling humming bird, which alludes to her suffering from divorce (as symbolized by the thorns) and to her quest for new love (as shown by the humming bird which is a traditional Mexican love amulet). (Erickson, 2005). In these self portraits,Kahlo’s entire life was depicted in her paintings. She drew her own birth, for instance, and many other events including those connected with her pain and frustration. (Levine 273) Her husband Diego Rivera was also depicted in many of her paintings in different ways: in Frida and Diego Rivera (1931) which is supposed to be a painting of their marriage, she paints him as a father-figure and herself as his daughter, which is reminiscent of Freud’s Electra complex and reveals Kahlo’s insecurity at her own husband’s authority.In another painting Retablo (1943), she captures the scene of the accident that left her under intense pain for most of her life (Kahlo and Kettenman 32) which she later depicts in Broken Column (1944) that â€Å"graphically expresses h er physical agony.† (West 184)Psychoanalysis therefore plays an important role in understanding and unlocking many surrealist artwork. In Kahlo’s case, the artist has rendered her own physical suffering in the metaphoric sense, mostly through the use of portraiture, to something that is haunting and beautiful, and one which outlasts even the pain and suffering of Kahlo’s troubled soul.Works Cited:Erickson, R. (2005). Freudian thought and the surrealist world. Downloaded from Associated Content, The People’s Media Company on March 16, 2007 Kahlo, F. & A. Kettenman. (2000). Frida Kahlo 1907-1954: Pain and Passion. Taschen.Levine, M. P. (2000). Analytic Freud: Philosophy and Psychoanalysis. United Kingdom: Routledge.West, S. (2004). Portraiture. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.